Influenza della siccità sulle Antiche Civiltà

Ecco un interessante studio dell'Università tedesca di Tubinga  (pubblicato su PNAS), che spiega come l'influenza del Clima sull'Agricoltura abbia rappresentato un fattore chiave 
sulla nascita (e sulla caduta) delle società dell'antico Medio Oriente.

Materiale: 1037 prelievi da 33 aree geografiche di semi di Orzo (Hordeum Vulgaris) di data variabile da 12.000 a 2500 anni fa.

Metodi: studio degli isotopi stabili del Carbonio contenuto nei semi prelevati: quando l'erba dell'orzo riceve acqua in quantità insufficiente durante la crescita, la proporzione di isotopi pesanti di carbonio che fissa è più elevata del normale. 12C e 13C sono stabili per migliaia di anni e possono essere convenientemente misurati e paragonati con le colture moderne della stessa regione.

Scopi: La dimostrazione, solamente iniziata, di come molte aree del Medio Oriente furono pesantemente influenzate, nei rimedi tecnici necessari e che furono ideati dalle popolazioni locali per i propri stanziamenti (irrigazione, canalizzazione) e nelle scelte che presero (in estremi casi, l'abbandono) a seconda della fluttuazione del clima.

Climate change and drought in ancient times 


The influence of climate on agriculture is believed to be a key factor in the rise and fall of societies in the Ancient Near East. 
Dr. Simone Riehl of Tübingen University’s Institute for Archaeological Science and the Senckenberg Center for Human Evolution and Palaeoenvironment has headed an investigation into archaeological finds of grain in order to find out what influence climate had on agriculture in early farming societies. 
Her findings are published in this week’s PNAS – Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

 Archaeological researchers are using stable carbon isotope data from archaeobotanical  barley grains to measure drought stress signals to study climate-related changes  in agricultural production 

[Credit: Simone Riehl, University of Tübingen] 

She and her team analyzed grains of barley up to 12,000 years old from 33 locations across the Fertile Crescent to ascertain if they had had enough water while growing and ripening. 
Riehl found that periods of drought had had noticeable and widely differing effects on agriculture and societies in the Ancient Near East, with settlements finding a variety of ways to deal with the problem.

The 1,037 ancient samples were between 12,000 and 2,500 years old. 

They were compared with modern samples from 13 locations in the former Fertile Crescent. Dr. Riehl and her team measured the grains’ content of two stable carbon isotopes. 
When barley grass gets insufficient water while growing, the proportion of heavier carbon isotopes deposited in its cells will be higher than normal. 
The two isotopes 12C und 13C remain stable for thousands of years and can be measured precisely – giving Simone Riehl and her colleagues reliable information on the availability of water while the plants were growing. 
They found that many settlements were affected by drought linked to major climate fluctuations. 
“Geographic factors and technologies introduced by humans played a big role and influenced societies’ options for development as well as their particular ways of dealing with drought,” says Riehl. 
Her findings indicate that harvests in coastal regions of the northern Levant were little affected by drought; but further inland, drought lead to the need for irrigation or, in extreme cases, abandonment of the settlement. 
The findings give archaeologists clues as to how early agricultural societies dealt with climate fluctuations and differing local environments. 
“They can also help evaluate current conditions in regions with a high risk of crop failures,” Riehl adds.
 The study is part of a German Research Foundation-backed project looking into the conditions under which Ancient Near Eastern societies rose and fell. 

Source: Universitaet Tübingen [August 12, 2014] 

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Nuovo modello di neolitizzazione

La 'Multidisciplinarietà' paga sempre: l'Università di Barcellona - insieme a quella di Madrid - offre (su PLOS  Genetics) un nuovo modello d'espansione della 'Rivoluzione' Neolitica partendo da studi sul DNA di varie popolazioni del Bacino Mediterraneo e confrontando i risultati co genetici con quelli archeologici.
Le conclusioni lasciano intravedere alcuni scenari possibili:

- esistono alcune evidenti affinità genetiche tra DNA mt delle prime popolazioni neolitiche e i primi agricoltori Catalani e della Germania. Ciò lascerebbe pensare che possibilmente l'espansione neolitica si verificò attraverso un pionierismo di piccole popolazioni.

- le due principali modalità di spostamento potrebbero essere geneticamente correlate.

- le similarità genetiche riscontrate tra Mezzaluna Fertile  da un lato e Cipro e Creta dall'altro, permette d'ipotizzare che la trasmissione si ebbe a mezzo un pionierismo via mare, piuttosto che non via terra come prima creduto. Anche i modelli  rituali funebri lasciano propendere per questa conclusione. I reperti C14 concordano.

- Ci si ripropone - adesso - di incrementare i numeri dello studio, per aumentarne la significatività scientifica.




DNA analysis 

of Near Eastern farmers supports 

Neolithic migration through Cyprus and Aegean 


 The mitochondrial DNA of the first Near Eastern farmers has been sequenced for the first time. 

In the research, published in the journal PLOS Genetics, experts analysed samples from three sites located in the birthplace of Neolithic agricultural practices: the Middle Euphrates basin and the oasis of Damascus, located in today’s Syria and date at about 8,000 BC. 

Experts analysed samples from three sites located in the birthplace of Neolithic  agricultural practices [Credit: Dr. Alejandro Pérez-Pérez] 

The paper is signed by Daniel Turbón and Alejandro Pérez Pérez, from the Department of Animal Biology of the University of Barcelona (UB); Eva Fernández, from Liverpool John Moores University; Cristina Gamba, Eduardo Arroyo Pardo and Pedro Cuesta, from Complutense University of Madrid; Eva Prats, from the Spanish National Research Council, and Josep Anfruns and Miquel Molist, from the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB). 

The study is focused on the analysis of mitochondrial DNA —a type of non-Mendelian maternally inherited DNA— from the first Neolithic farmers, by means of samples obtained by the UAB research group which were first processed by the UB research group. 

The Neolithic: a profound revolution in human societies Agricultural and husbandry practices originated around 12,000 years ago in a region of the Near East known as the Fertile Crescent. 

This phenomenon, known as “Neolithic”, meant a profound social, cultural and economic transformation of human populations (agricultural production, sedentary farming lifestyle, origin of the first cities and modern societies, etc.).

Sites are located in today’s Syria and date at about 8,000 BC. [Credit: Dr. Alejandro Pérez-Pérez] 

Eva Fernández, first author of the article who got her PhD from UB, explains that “the Neolithic Revolution rapidly expanded from these territories into Europe, where the hunter-gatherer subsistence economy —prevailing till then— was replaced by an agropastoral producing system”. 

To know the nature of the diffusion of the Neolithic —in other words, to know if it was a population migration process or a cultural adoption— has been widely debated for the last fifty years. 

Different research fields, for instance archaeology, physical anthropology, linguistics and, more recently, human paleogenetics, have made contributions to the discussion. 

The unknown genetics of first Near Eastern farmers 

The genetic composition of first Neolithic populations was one of the mysteries of science till today, although some advances in European Neolithic populations’ genetics were made during the last decade. 
Professor Daniel Turbón points out that the results revealed by the study published in PLOS Genetics “are the first ones regarding first Near Eastern farmers; in other words, the genetic stock of original Neolithic”.

 Samples were obtained by the UAB research group and first processed by the  UB research group [Credit: Dr. Alejandro Pérez-Pérez] 

However, it is important to remember that other data have been published about European first farmers, to be exact in Catalonia (by Cristina Gamba et al., 2012), the Basque Country (by Hervella et al.) and Germany (by Wolfgang Haak et al., 2010, and Brandt et al., 2013).

 “Conclusions of previous studies —explains Turbón— are based on the comparison with current Near East populations, as first agricultural societies’ genetics have remained unknown until now”.

From the Near East to Europe 

The study published in PLOS Genetics provides a new framework to interpret the results of other studies about European Neolithic populations, stress the authors. 
According to conclusions, genetic affinities have been observed between the mitochondrial DNA of first Neolithic populations and the DNA of first Catalan and German farmers. 

The study is focused on the analysis of mitochondrial DNA —a type of non-Mendelian maternally inherited DNA— from the first Neolithic farmers [Credit: Dr. Alejandro Pérez-Pérez] 

This suggests that probably Neolithic expansion took place through pioneer migrations of small groups of population. 

Moreover, the two main migration routes ―Mediterranean and European― might have been genetically linked. 

“The most significant conclusion —highlights Eva Fernández— is that the degree of genetic similarity between the populations of the Fertile Crescent and the ones of Cyprus an Crete supports the hypothesis that Neolithic spread in Europe took place through pioneer seafaring colonization, not through a land-mediated expansion through Anatolia, as it was thought until now”.

How did the Neolithic Revolution spread? Other scientific studies had already provided signs of an alternative scenario of Neolithic spread in Europe different from the one through Anatolia. 
According to Turbón, “recent archaeological finds have proved that the Neolithic arrived to Cyprus around 10,600 years ago, some years after the first documentation of agricultural practices in the Near East”. 

The study provides a new framework to interpret the results of other studies about  European Neolithic populations [Credit: Dr. Alejandro Pérez-Pérez] 

Architecture and burial models found in Cyprus’ sites are similar to the ones found in the Middle Euphrates basin, “that indicates a direct colonisation of these territories”, highlights the author.

 “Besides, spatial interpolation of radiocarbon dates from different Neolithic sites in the Near East and Europe also suggests a first seafaring expansion through Cyprus”, he concludes.

In order to support these conclusions, the scientific team aims at analysing a greater number of human Neolithic samples from other regions of the Fertile Crescent, and at increasing the number of genetic markers analysed in the samples. 

Source: Universitat de Barcelona [July 06, 2014

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SIRIA CENTRALE

Siria Centrale, presso Homs: giovedì 20 Marzo.

Il Krak dei Cavalieri (Ḥisn al-Akrād in lingua araba, cioè Fortezza dei Curdi, oggi Qalʿat al-Ḥiṣn, Cittadella della fortezza) è una fortezza militare siriana, situata nei pressi di Homs; può essere considerato il castello medievale per eccellenza d'età crociata.
Fu la più importante e più nota costruzione militare fortificata dell'Ordine militare dei Cavalieri dell'Ospedale di S. Giovanni di Gerusalemme, più noto come Ordine Ospedaliero prima di diventare Ordine dei Cavalieri di Rodi e infine Ordine dei Cavalieri di Malta - oggi S.M.O.M. (Sovrano Militare Ordine di Malta).
Il Krak (che deriva dalla parola aramaica karkha, che significa città, conservatasi nel centro urbano transgiordanico di al-Karak, la biblica Moab) si trova a metà strada circa tra Aleppo e Damasco, a 60 km quasi a SO di Hama.
[Credit: Wiki Commons]

L'esercito siriano fedele a Bashar Assad  ha preso - giovedì 

scorso - la cittadella crociata nota come Krak dei Cavalieri 

(Krak des Chevaliers, Qalaat Al-Hosn), dopo forti scontri con 

i ribelli. 

Sorpresi in un agguato, sono 11 i ribelli morti, più di 45 feriti, 

risulta dispersa la Democrazia... 

In precedenza era caduta Yabroud, una cittadina ribelle 

nella vicina regione di Qualamoun.

Le mura del famoso castello crociato sono state danneggiate.

Le libertà individuali hanno subito i peggiori danni.



Syrian army takes Krak des Chevaliers in Homs 



The Syrian army took over the historic citadel known as Krak des Chevaliers in Homs Thursday following fierce battles with rebels. 

Krak des Chevaliers castle is seen in Syria in this Wednesday, April 16, 2008 

[Credit: The Daily Star/Mohammad Azakir] 

Al-Jadeed reporter Ramez al-Qadi, who is embedded with Syrian government forces, broadcast live from a hill overlooking the fort moments after it fall to troops loyal to Syrian President Bashar Assad. 
At least 11 rebels were killed and more than 45 wounded in a Syrian army ambush and ensuing gunbattle in Al-Hosn which takes its name from Qalaat Al-Hosn, Arabic for Krak de Chavaliers. The fort’s fall comes days after the Syrian army seized control of the strategic rebel-held town of Yabroud in the region of Qalamoun. 


Source: The Daily Star [March 20, 2014]

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IDENTITA' DELL'OSSIDIANA IN 10 SECONDI

I ricercatori dell'Università di Sheffield hanno sviluppato un metodo per  determinare l'origine dell'ossidiana che richiede solo 10 secondi -- Dozzine di volte più veloce del metodo attualmente in uso -- per mezzo di uno strumento portatile a mano, che può essere usato negli scavi archeologici.

Dr Ellery Frahm using pXRF [Credit: University of Sheffield]

L'ossidiana, cioé il 'vetro vulcanico' che si ritrova in natura, è liscio, duro e molto più affilato di un bisturi quando sia fratturato: il che lo rese un materiale molto ricercato per ottenerne stumenti di pietra, per tutta la storia dell'umanità. I più antichi strumenti di ossidiana furono trovati circa  due milioni d'anni fa nell'Africa orientale e alcuni bisturi sono tutt'oggi in ossidiana (per esempio, in oculistica, ndt.).  

La composizione chimica dell'ossidiana varia da vulcano a vulcano e le 'impronte digitali' chimiche permettono ai ricercatori di  confrontare un artefatto d'ossidiana sfruttando proprio l'origine vulcanica del materiale.  I test chimici spesso coinvolgono laboratori d'analisi dedicati specificamente all'uopo, persino con reattori nucleari, che richiedono mesi o anni d'attesa dopo lo scavo.

Il nuovo procedimento adotta una tecnica d'analisi  detta "fluorescenza portatile a raggi X" (portable X-ray fluorescence = pXRF) che richiede uno strumento portatile non più grande e non dissimile da un telefono portatile cordless. Questa metodica è comodissima, dando la possibilità all'archeologo d'identificare l'origine dell'oggetto di pietra  sul campo, invece di doverlo spedire lontano, risparmiando così tempo e denaro. Sarà usata prima per studiare gli strumenti d'ossidiana fatti dai primi esseri umani, includendo Neanderthal ed Erectus, decine di migliaia d'anni fa.
Il Dr Ellery Frahm dell'Università di Sheffield, Dipartimento di Archeologia, è molto soddisfatto di potere esaminare i reperti sul campo, senza più le lunghe attese che erano richieste in passato e soprattutto del fatto che il riconoscimento sia fatto contestualmente al momento dello scavo, sul sito di scavo, con risultati entro 10 secondi per ciò che riguarda la provenienza dell'ossidiana.

La ricerca è stata condotta in Armenia, "perché si tratta di uno dei territori naturalmente più ricchi di ossidiana in assoluto ed insieme uno dei paesaggi culturali più ricchi nel mondo, con assemblaggi litici di numerosi siti del Paleolitico che sono composti prevalentemente, se non unicamente, di ossidiana". 
Il presente lavoro è il più recente: prima la ricerca era condotta in siria, un'area nella quale gli attuali eventi bellici stanno mettendo a rischio tutto l'insieme dell'eredità culturale del paese. 

Questa ricerca globalmente ha avuto origine  dal fatto che il dipartimento sia entrato  nel circuito - a finanziamento Unione europea - Marie Curie "New Archaeological Research Network for Integrating Approaches to Ancient Material Studies," conosciuto meglio sotto l'acronimo di NARNIA. Il dr Frahm sostiene che la ricerca di Sheffield a mezzo NARNIA  unisce  lavoro laboratoristico archeologico al lavoro archeologico sul campo: tenedo in mente due scopi fondamentali. "Lavorare dove prima non potevamo lavorare e rispondere a domande a cui prima non potevamo rispondere."

Il Dr Frahm si dichiara estremamente soddisfatto del fatto che l'analisi chimica sia stata portata via ai "camici bianchi" per essere consegnata agli "scarponi infangati". Più specialisti presenti sul campo significa sempre migliori risultati pratici. 

Source: University of Sheffield [September 09, 2013]

Researchers at the University of Sheffield have developed a method of sourcing obsidian artefacts that takes only 10 seconds -- dozens of times faster than the current methods -- with a handheld instrument that can be used at archaeological excavations.

Dr Ellery Frahm using pXRF [Credit: University of Sheffield]

Obsidian, naturally occurring volcanic glass, is smooth, hard, and far sharper than a surgical scalpel when fractured, making it a highly desirable raw material for crafting stone tools for almost all of human history. The earliest obsidian tools, found in East Africa, are nearly two million years old, and obsidian scalpels are still used today in specialised medical procedures.

The chemistry of obsidian varies from volcano to volcano, and the chemical "fingerprints" allow researchers to match an obsidian artefact to the volcanic origin of its raw material. The chemical tests often involve dedicated analytical laboratories, even nuclear reactors, and take place months or years after an archaeological site has been excavated.

The new process uses an analytical technique called portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF), which involves a handheld instrument about the size, shape, and weight of a cordless drill. This portability enables archaeologists to identify the origins of stone tools in the field rather than having to send off artefacts to a distant lab. The newly developed method, which saves time and money, will first be used to study obsidian tools made by early humans, including Neanderthals and Homo erectus, tens of thousands of years ago.

Dr Ellery Frahm from the University of Sheffield's Department of Archaeology explained: "Obsidian sourcing has, for the last 50 years, involved chemical analysis in a distant laboratory, often taking five minutes per artefact, completely separate from the process of archaeological excavation. We sought to bring new tools for chemical analysis with us into the field, so we can do obsidian sourcing as we excavate or survey an archaeological site, not wait until months or years later to learn the results. We can now analyse an obsidian artefact in the field, and just 10 seconds later, we have an answer for its origin.

"We carried out the research in Armenia because it has one of the most obsidian-rich natural and cultural landscapes in the world, and the lithic assemblages of numerous Palaeolithic sites are predominantly, if not entirely, composed of obsidian."

The work is the latest of Dr Frahm's achievements in the field of obsidian sourcing, an area that he previously researched in Syria, prior to the current conflict situation which now threatens the country's heritage.

This research arose from the department's involvement in the EU-funded Marie Curie network "New Archaeological Research Network for Integrating Approaches to Ancient Material Studies," known by its acronym as NARNIA. Dr Frahm explained that Sheffield's research with NARNIA includes uniting archaeological labwork and fieldwork in the field: "We have a broad remit on the project, but we are driven by two goals: work where we couldn't work before, and answer what we couldn't answer before."

Dr Frahm continued: "Here at Sheffield we're shifting chemical analysis from the realm of 'white lab coats' to 'muddy boots.' The more that archaeologists and specialists in various fields can work together on-site the better.

Source: University of Sheffield [September 09, 2013]